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Parakramabahu I
He united the whole island under his
rule, and even invaded India and Burma. His name "Parakrama", is derived by
the joining of the words "Para"(foreign) "Akrama"(Invader) which illustrates
the significant feat of him invading India.
Parakrama was known for the rapid development of hydraulic infrastructure
during his reign, builing large amounts of tanks, canals, and artificial
lakes. His largest legacy was the Parakrama Samudra or "Sea of Parakrama", a
vast lake adjoining his capital at Polonnaruwa.
His most famous quote was "Not one drop of water shall reach the sea without
first serving man"
By Chandra Edirisuriya
The Chronicle states that soon after Parakramabau ascended the throne at
Polonnaruwa as king of Lanka he put into effective practice four kingly
aspirations which he desired to see fulfilled, namely, the happiness of the
mass of the people, the stability of the religion, the protection of the
nobility and the support of those in want. (University of Ceylon - A Concise
History of Ceylon by C. W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitana.
Every year, in the king's
presence, a ceremony of admission to the Buddhist Order was held on a
mandapa moored in the Mahaweli Ganga. In the capital he had five alms houses
built, where monks, mendicant Brahmanas, poor travellers and other
supplicants were provided with food daily. A great hall was built to serve
as a hospital equipped with every necessity and provided with a staff of
physicians and male and female nurses and attendants: the king himself made
visits of inspection to the hospital on poya days. (University of Ceylon - A
Concise History of Ceylon by C. W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitana).
Greatest king of Lanka
Parakramabahu the Great is considered as the greatest king of Lanka in terms
of the massive military campaigns he launched locally to consolidate his
power and abroad for prestige, for uniting the whole of Lanka under one
chathra, for the stupendous religious edifices and unprecedentedly large
irrigation works he constructed, for the advancement of agriculture and
generally because of the overall prosperity associated with his reign.
Son of Manabharana
Parakramabahu I was the son of Manabharana the ruler of Dakkhinadesa.
Intrigue and dissension followed immediately upon the death of Vijayabahu I
the leader of the Sinhalese in the war of independence against the Cholas,
who ruled for 55 years from 1055 AC. The princess Mitta (sister of the late
king Vijayabahu I and wife of a Pandya prince), her three sons, the
ministers and high officials and the chief monks of the ascetic sects
conferred together and without informing the adipada Vikramabahu (the late
king's son who was the ruler of Ruhuna), consecrated the uparaja Jayabahu as
king and appointed as uparaja the prince Manabharana, eldest son of the
princess Mitta.
Jayabahu's succession to the throne was lawful because he was uparaja of
Vijayabahu I, but in elevating Manabharana the bhagineyya or king's sister's
son, to be uparaja of Jayabahu instead of Vikramabahu, the king's son they
"quitted the path of former custom".
The case for Manabharana was probably based on matriarchy, that he was
bhagineyya as well as on the fact that he was a scion of the Sinhalese royal
house, while Vikramabahu, on his mother's side, was of Kalinga (Srivijaya)
descent.
The aim of the confederacy clearly was that Mitta's son, Manabharana, should
exercise the real power, with her brother Jayabahu I, as puppet king and
that Vikramabahu should be liquidated. With this object Manabharana and his
brother, together with king Jayabahu, took possession of the regalia and
treasure and, at the head of the army, advanced into Ruhuna to seize
Vikramabahu.
Vikramabahu took up the challenge. Actions were fought at Kosgoda,
Dambagalla, Galabedda and other places in the Moneragala area and in all
these engagements, Vikramabahu, who appears to have inherited some of his
father's fighting qualities, was victorious although outnumbered. He drove
the royal army westward and cut it off from its base, and himself marched
north, occupied Polonnaruwa and established himself there as ruler of
Rajarata, thus completely turning tables on Jayabahu and Manabharana.
Thereafter, Manabharana and his two brothers shared Dakkhinadesa and Ruhuna
between them; Manabharana ruled Dakkhinadesa under the name of Virabahu with
his seat at Dedigama in the Kegalle district: Kittisirimegha became ruler of
Dolosdahas-rata, that part of Ruhuna, to the west of Walawe Ganga with his
capital at Manavulu (the modern Rambha-vihara, near Ambalantota): and
Sirivallabha took charge of Atadahas-rata, that part of Ruhuna to the east
of the Walawe Ganga, with his headquarters at Undundora (present Galabedda,
near Moneragala). King Jayabahu and the princess Mitta lived with
Kittisirimegha at Manavulu.
A year later civil war broke out again. However, thereafter, Vikramabahu and
his three rivals ceased organised hostilities and each dwelt in his own
realm. While this state of affairs prevailed king Jayabahu and princess
Mitta both died in Ruhuna. Manabharana of Dakkhinadesa died soon after the
birth of his son Parakramabahu: thereupon Kittisirimegha took over
Dakkhinadesa and Srivallabha assumed control over the whole of Ruhuna.
Vikramabahu died about 1131/32 AC and was succeeded at Polonnaruwa by his
son Gajabahu. The brothers, Kittisirimegha of Dakkhinadesa and Srivallabha
of Ruhuna, made a combined effort to dispossess Gajabahu but failed in the
attempt: they retired to their principalities and made no further effort to
renew the war.
Epic of Parakramabahu I
The next epoch of Lanka's history, a period of about 50 years, constitutes
the epic of Parakramabahu I, the son of Manabharana, ruler of Dakkhinadesa
who was the contemporary of Vikramabahu of Rajarata. He was brought up by
his uncle, Kittisrimegha, who had no son, at the then seat of the ruler of
Dakkhinadesa Hatnagoda, in Beligal Korale, Kegalle district. He was
instructed by chosen teachers in language and literature, religion,
statecraft, the bearing of arms, sport, dance and music. Kittisirimegha
encouraged the prince in his studies and took him on tours of inspection.
Great military commander
Parakramabahu I was a great military commander. Even at fourteen or fifteen
years of age Parakramabahu was ambitious and precocious. In the plans for
the future formulating in his young mind, the annexation of Rajarata to
Dakkhinadesa was the first step in his scheme for the unification of the
whole of Lanka into one kingdom, with himself as king. Upon assuming the
overlordship of the principality of Dakkhinadesa, the prince Parakramabahu's
first step was to secure his frontiers against possible aggression and, to
this end he established military posts at various points, in particular on
the east and north where his boundary was contagious with that of Gajabahu.
An unified kingdom comprising the whole of Lanka
He then proceeded to develop the agricultural resources of his territory by
putting in hand a number of irrigation projects designed to bring large
areas of new lands under cultivation. It was in the incipient stage of this
great new program of development that he is said to have declared, referring
not to Lanka as a whole but to the peculiar physical features of his own
principality that 'not even a little of water that comes from the rain must
flow into the ocean without being made useful to man'. These activities had
as their basic object the building up of the material resources of
Dakkhinadesa to make it the most powerful of the three principalities (Rajarata,
Ruhuna and Dakkhinadesa). They were preparations for the inevitable armed
struggle ahead in which Parakramabahu would have to be victorious in order
to achieve his growing ambition of establishing his authority as undisputed
ruler over an unified kingdom comprising the whole of Lanka.
Trade was established with foreign countries
The development projects were centred mainly on the harnessing of the Deduru
Oya, but they extended also to the wet zone: the Pasdun Korale, which was a
great, swampy wilderness, was drained of its marshes and a large extent of
new land was rendered cultivable. Parakramabahu established his capital
Parakramapura, now the ruins known as Panduwasnuwara, near Hettipola, a
central position and constructed there the first Parakramasamudra, also
known as Bana Samudra by enlarging the existing tank Pandawewa: close to the
tank he built a palace, with a walled citadel. The administration of the
principality was re-organised: the army, the militia and all military
affairs were placed under the Senapathi while finance, administration and
civil affairs in general were the responsibility of a chief officer of
state. The latter, in particular, had a large number of executive officials
under him. All lands of extraordinary value, such as lands containing gems,
metals or minerals, were administered by a special department. Trade was
established with foreign countries and precious stones were exported: the
main seaports of the principality were, probably, Kalpitiya, Chilaw and
Colombo. The export trade added materially to the prince's money resources.
Military training was made part of the education of
all able-bodied youths
The organisation and training of armed forces of the principality were a
complementary part of the expansion in agricultural and commercial activity.
Foreign mercenaries, Malays and south Indians, formed the nucleus of the
standing army: a section of these constituted the Velaikkara regiment or the
king's bodyguard. Certain units of the standing army were especially trained
and equipped for night-fighting, others for breaking into fortifications and
defended buildings. Throughout the principality the acquisition of skill in
the use of military weapons and martial training of every kind were greatly
encouraged among young men: youth were orgnaised as cadet units bearing
special names. Military commanders were appointed to direct the training of
the militia and the rural bands. In these ways, military training was made
part of the education of all able-bodied youths, so that in times of war, a
large body of trained militia would become available for service in the
field.
Parakramabahu's plan of attack provided first of all, for the annexation of
Mahamalayadesa, that is, that part of the hill country which fell within
Gajabahu's realm. It was a sound plan, because the possession of this region
which included Laggala, Patha Dumbara and Uda Dumbara, secured the right
plank of operations which were to follow against the Elahera-Polonnaruwa
area. The terrain was difficult for military operations because many parts
of it were inaccessible except by narrow, steep and winding footpaths:
heavily forested hills separated the inhabited valleys and the larger
mountain streams were crossable only where the banks were not rocky and
precipitous.
Parakramabahu resorted to intrigue in the first instance. He won over to his
side Rakkha, Gajabahu's dandanayaka in the Southern part of Mahamalayadesa
and hoped to make use of Rakkha's influence and authority to gain control
over the whole region. Patha Dumbara was quickly seized and then with
Rakkha's influence the areas around Napana, Rambukwella and Dunuvila were
subdued. But resistance around Mediwaka and in the Kosvagga district was
strong and had to be overcome by guile as well as by force. In a final
battle in Kosvagga district, the preliminary campaign for the annexation of
Gajabahu's mountain territory terminated successfully.
Parakramabahu himself planned the operations
Parakramabahu now launched his main series of attacks upon Rajarata. He is
said to have himself planned the operations, following the text-book
injunctions of Kautilya and other authorities, and to have set down his
orders in writing and delivered them to his commanders. The opening attack
was on the west coast, the objective being the Pearl Banks. The commander on
this sector advanced from Vellavela, near Battulu Oya and captured
Gajabahu's fortress near Puttalam. He then embarked his troops, sailed to
the Pearl Banks and fought a naval action. Apparently this operation failed
but it was repeated shortly afterwards by another commander: this time it
was successful and troops secured the Pearl Banks, landed in the mainland
and built a fort from which to control the north-western sea-board. In
support of the naval operations, a parallel advance was made inland: the
Kala Oya was crossed and Kattiyawa was captured. Further inland in the
Kalawewa district where the command was held by one of Gajabahu's ablest
generals, a number of engagements was fought at different places, including
Kahalla, Talakiriyagama, Madahapola, Nilagama and Dambulla but the defences
held and Parakramahabu's attacks came to a standstill.
Further to the East, Parakramabahu's troops astride the Amban Ganga near
Nalanda made their approach march to Gajabahu's frontier, and his
detachments at Bogambara entered Laggala. Parakramabahu now strengthened his
forces advancing directly upon Polonnaruwa, Gajabahu's capital and this
threat brought immediate counter-measures. Gajabahu launched two
counter-attacks, one to halt the progress towards Polonnaruwa and the other
a strong diversionary blow, directed at the fortress on Parakramabahu's left
flank on the north-western coast. Parakramabahu's troops succeeded, however,
in penetrating into the Elahera district where they captured Talagoda and
then occupied Alagamuwa and built a strong fortress there by the river.
Gajabahu's troops made repeated efforts to capture this fort, but they were
defeated and Parakramabahu's general won a notable victory. Parakramabahu
now turned his attention to the threat to his left flank. His Senapathi Deva
advanced from Giribawa, bridged the Kala Oya opposite Angamuwa and fought
his way to the neighbourhood of Anuradhapura. The commander on the
north-western coast was ordered to support the Senapathi's advance from the
west: he marched inland, fought two successful actions and reached Tissawewa
at Anuradhapura. Here he found himself under heavy attack by strong
reinforcements which Gajabahu had sent up, and was soon entrapped and
besieged within the city. The immediate concern now was to relieve the
beleaguered commander: he was eventually able to breakout and join the
senapathi after a series of successful attacks in his aid had been made.
Gajabahu retained his hold on Anuradhapura.
The main thrust towards Polonnaruwa was now resumed, and Parakramabahu
established his battle headquarters at Nalanda, in proximity to the scene of
operations. The Elahera district was systematically conquered in a series of
encounters and when this had been accomplished Parakramabahu gave orders for
the capture of Polonnaruwa. Hitherto Manabharana the ruler of Ruhuna had
allied himself with Gajabahu and his troops had fought alongside those of
Gajabahu in several battles: but seeing that the course of war was now going
against Gajabahu and that triumph for Parakramabahu appeared to be in sight,
he abrogated his alliance with Gajabahu and entered into a treaty with
Parakramabahu. In order to attack Gajabahu from the rear while Parakramabahu
made his frontal assault upon Polonnaruwa, Manabharana set up camp with
troops at Sorabora. The advance to Polonnaruwa now reached its climax.
Converging columns now forged to the Kahandigama pass in the Sudukanda range
of hills. This pass was the gateway to Polonnaruwa from the west and was
strongly defended by Gajabahu's troops, but they could not resist the weight
of Parakramabahu's assault found themselves hemmed in on three sides within
the pass and after suffering severe losses, yielded their ground.
Parakramabahu's troops streamed through the pass, while the survivors of
Gajabahu's forces retreated in disorder into Polonnaruwa. In a last attempt
to save his capital, Gajabahu assembled all his available troops, including
his Tamil bodyguards, war elephants and chariots and moved out of the town
to give battle to the advancing army of Parakramabahu. The struggle was
short and decisive. Thrown back in confusion, Gajabahu's troops broke and
fled. Gajabahu had the gates of the town locked and hid himself within. The
victorious army of Parakramabahu, in close pursuit, soon swarmed over the
fortifications and assisted by spies within the town who unlocked the gates,
entered Polonnaruwa, discovered Gajabahu's hiding place, made him captive
and imprisoned him in his palace.
Parakramabahu, who had remained behind at Nalanda, desired that Gajabahu
should retain his regal dignity and sent him presents of garments and
ornaments and gave instructions to his officers to treat him with honour.
But the victorious and elated soldiers had got out of hand and pillage,
rioting and disturbances were taking place in Polonnaruwa. Parakramabahu's
commanders at Polonnaruwa and the district chieftains conferred together and
sent him the following message: "So long as the king Gajabahu is alive, the
people dwelling in his kingdom will not submit to thy sovereignty: he must
therefore be put to death." Translating this idea of political expediency
into practice, they and their soldiers intensified their pillage of
Polonnaruwa, breaking into houses and plundering property to such an extent
that the enraged population gathered together under their own officials and
councillors and sent an urgent appeal to Manabharana of Ruhuna who was at
Sorobora to come speedily to their deliverance, promising him the rulership
of Rajarata. Meanwhile Parakramabahu had fetched the senapathi Deva from the
Anuradhapura area and sent him and his troops to Polonnaruwa to restore
order and discipline among the unruly soldiers there. When the senapati
arrived at Polonnaruwa, Mahabharana had answered the appeal made to him and
was already marching on the town. The senapati found himself engaged in
battle with Manabharana before he had time to organize the disorderly rabble
which occupied the town and the result was that he and all Parakramabahu's
troops at Polonnaruwa suffered a crushing defeat, the senapathi himself
being taken prisoner.
The first few days of Manabharana's occupation of Polonnaruwa reassured the
population: he restored order and calm and treated Gajabahu with reverence.
But his real intentions became apparent as soon as he had secured firm
control. He put to death all the high and influential officers of Gajabahu
and then seized Gajabahu and imprisoned him in a dungeon. He had brought to
Polonnaruwa from Ruhuna, the Tooth and the Bowl Relics which had been
removed for safety in the time of Wikramabahu, with the obvious intention of
celebrating his own consecration. He then began to starve and ill-treat
Gajabahu so that he would die by slow degrees. Gajabahu in his miserable
plight and conscious of Manabharana's intentions, succeeded in getting a
secret message delivered to Parakramabahu, imploring the latter to release
him from his torment. Parakramabahu responded at once: with the least delay
he mounted another attack on Polonnaruwa in aid of Gajabahu. Columns moved
rapidly from Wewalawewa, Makulebe and other points: the roads from Ruhuna to
Polonnaruwa were blockaded. On all sides supplies and communications were
cut and the encircling troops closed in on Polonnaruwa. Manabharana marched
out to fight but was driven back and abandoning the town, made good his
escape to Ruhuna together with the Tooth and the Bowl Relics.
Parakramabahu's troops broke into the town and released Gajabahu: he did not
wait to receive Parakramabahu but betook himself at once to Kottiyar with
the intention of taking ship out of the country if his misfortunes became
worse.
In a short while hostilities with Gajabahu broke out once again, the
immediate cause being an attack by Gajabahu's followers on a detachment of
Parakramabahu's troops who were recuperating at a place by the river.
Incensed by what he considered to be a hostile and ungrateful act,
Parakramabahu gave orders for the capture of Gajabahu's person and his
troops began to march on Gajabahu's abode in Kottiyar Pattu. Several actions
were fought on the river and to the east of it, and Gajabahu even launched
an unsuccessful counter-attack on Polonnaruwa, but it was not long before
that he realised that his powers of resistance were nearing exhaustion and
that his capture was approaching. As a last resort Gajabahu approached the
Sangha for intervention and mediation. The Sangha undertook the task and
sent a deputation to Parakramabahu at Giritale. They reminded Parakramabahu
that he sought the sovereignty only to serve his people and further the
cause of religion, and that this object was near attainment because Gajabahu
was old and had no son or brother to succeed him: they asked Parakramabahu
therefore, to end the war, return to his own principality and bide his time.
Parakramabahu heeded this request and returned with his army to Dakkhinadesa.
Gajabahu took up residence at Kantale and passed the evening of his life
there happily.
But Manabharana of Ruhuna continued to plot. He sent envoys with gifts to
Gajabahu and sought a renewal of their old alliance, hoping that if it was
renewed he would be nominated as Gajabahu's successor. But Gajabahu rejected
these advances, and to put an end to further approaches by Manabharana, he
went to Medirigiri-Vihara and had the words, "I have made over Rajarata to
king Parakrama engraved there on a rock. Gajabahu returned to Kantale and
soon afterwards died there in the year 1153. The inscription which the
chronicle asserts was engraved at Medirigiriya has not been found. But a
copy of this record, incised on the rock surface, has been discovered at
Sangamu-vihara, fourteen miles north east of Kurunegala, a site in
Parakramabahu's principality of Dakkhinadesa. The Sangamu inscription is a
treaty between the two brothers-in-law, Gajabahu and Parakramabahu, in which
they agree not to make war against each other, to nominate one another as
the heir of the other, and to regard the enemy of one, as the enemy of the
other. The last clause was, apparently directed against Manabharana of
Ruhuna.
On the death of Gajabahu, his minister had the body conveyed to Kottiyar and
in violation of the treaty with Parakramabahu, sent a message to Manabharana
of Ruhuna to come with all haste and assume the rulership of Rajarata.
Manabharana responded to the call and marched to Kottiyar with a host of
troops. Parakramabahu, on hearing the news, sent forward his army and
occupied Polonnaruwa. He prepared for war at once: troops were dispatched to
guard all the fords on the Mahaweli Ganga from Trincomalee as far as
Vilgamuwa, so as to prevent Manabharana from crossing the river to the
Rajarata side. Then Parakramabahu celebrated his consecration at Polonnaruwa
as ruler of Rajarata and set forth to war. Manabharana's soldiers made
unsuccessful attempts to cross the Mahaweli Ganga at a number of places
principally Vilgamuwa, Talangamuwa, Hembarawa, Marake, Polwatte, Yakkure,
Nikagollewa and Malagamuwa. Every attempt by Manabharana to cross the river
having failed and the position in this region remaining static,
Parakramabahu decided to carry the battle to his opponent and to attack him
in his own territory, from an unexpected direction, the south-west.Parakramabahu's
two commanders stationed in the Maniyamgana area and in Pasdun Korale
advanced into Navadun Korale which was then a possession of Ruhuna.
Continuing their progress they ascended the hills, took possession of the
mountainous country of the Kukul, Atakalan, Kolonna and Morawak Korales and
descended down the valley of the Nilwala Ganga into the Matara district
where they fought a successful action near Akuressa and crossed the river at
that point. Manabharana had to detach substantial forces from the Mahaweli
Ganga front to meet this threat to his rear, and he might have lost the war
at this stage but that fortune favoured him.
Certain inhabitants of Rajarata
who supported Manabharana made known to him the existence of a ford on the
river, unknown to and unguarded by Parakramabahu's troops where his soldiers
could cross: Manabharana took immediate advantage of this valuable
information and began to send detachments across the river at that point.
Parakramabahu on hearing of this manoeuvre instructed one of his commanders
to build a fort on the left bank and neutralize this new crossing. But this
officer, being jealous of the praise given to a rival commander, was lax and
dilatory in carrying out his task, and a spy in his camp set word to
Manabharana to attack him while he was still unprepared. Manabharana himself
led the attack on the negligent commander: it achieved complete success and
the commander himself was slain after displaying great personal gallantry.
The confusion caused by the breach in the defences spread to neighbouring
units: other commanders on the river were compelled to fall back to conform
to the new tactical situation and soon a general withdrawal of
Parakramabahu's forces on the river-line commenced. Manabharana exploited
his success to the full: by morning in the next day the retiring troops were
passing through Polonnaruwa and the inhabitants of Rajarata joined in
harrying Parakramabahu's dispirited troops in retreat. It was soon evident
that the retirement would have to be continued to the frontier districts of
Dakkhinadesa in order to secure a respite from fighting and enable the
scattered and demoralized troops to be reformed for effective resistance.
Manabharana occupied Polonnaruwa and advanced to Giritale. Some of
Parakramabahu's troops reached Huruluwewa and others were trying to reform
on the line Karavilahena-Dambulla. Parakramabahu was counseled to retire
further to Panduvasnuwara or even to Kelaniya to rest and rehabilitate his
soldiers for a resumption of war, but he rejected this pessimistic view of
the situation and decided that the time had come to halt, re-group and turn
around and fight. Manabharana's rapid advance from the river had lost its
momentum and was now halted, and Parakramabahu was ready to take the
offensive again. From his base at Nalanda he sent forward columns to recover
lost ground and these formed a new line curving north-east from Elahera to
Kantale. Manabharana now created a diversion in Parakramabahu's rear by
delivering an attack from Anuradhapura southward across the Kala Oya: it was
a partial success at the beginning but Parakramabahu strongly reinforced his
troops in the Kalawewa region and restored the situation.
The battle was resumed in the Polonnaruwa sector by columns based on Elahera.
They attacked with new vigour and made good progress towards Polonnaruwa.
Instead of closing in on Polonnaruwa and besieging it, Parakramabahu brought
into action his specially trained commando units, consisting of hunters,
path-finders, night fighters and house breakers. These troops made day and
night forays around Polonnaruwa so that communications were severed, all
business on the outskirts of the town ceased, the citizens were unable to go
outside of the city in safety and a state of panic prevailed in the town.
Manabharana marched out of the town with his troops and launched an attack
in the direction of Dambulla but he engaged and delayed on his way by three
of Parakramabahu's columns from three different directions. Diverted from
his objective by this resistance and unwilling to divide his forces,
Manabharana took up a position at Konduruwa on the Elahera canal. Guerrilla
warfare continued for six months longer in the course of which two pitched
battles went in Parakramabahu's favour: Manabharana's forces had become
seriously weakened by losses and he began to build a stronghold where he
could fight a delaying action until he was finally forced to fall back on
Polonnaruwa. Parakramabahu judged that his was the time for decisive attack.
The stronghold was captured, but during the night, in darkness and heavy
rain. Manabharana abandoned his troops and made good his escape, crossing
the river at a secret ford.
At dawn, detachments hastened to the river in pursuit of Mahabharana, but
Parakramabahu recalled them allowed the fleeing ruler of Ruhuna to travel
unmolested back to his own territory. Parakramabahu entered Polonnaruwa in
triumph and celebrated his second consecration, this time as ruler over the
whole of Lanka. The Chronicle gives a picturesque description of the event
and of the rejoicings of the populace. In the Devanagala inscription of his
twelfth regnal year, Parakramabahu declares that he made war with two
persons, Gajabahu and Manabharana and 'made the authority of one umbrella of
dominion prevail in the island of Lanka'.
Parakramabahu's great architectural undertaking was the building of
Polonnaruwa and its embellishments with palaces, monasteries, parks and
ponds to make it a worthy royal city. Parakramabahu I also took in hand the
restoration of ruined stupas and temples at the ancient capital,
Anuradhapura, which, but for two short spells of a few months each, had not
been occupied by a Sinhala king since the Cholas captured and devastated the
city over 160 years earlier. The four great stupas were 'overgrown with
great trees, bears and panthers dwelt there and the ground of the jungle
scarce offered a foothold by reason of the heaps of brick and earth.' The
Chronicle claims that the king restored all important monuments at
Anuradhapura as well as the entire Mihintale monastery. The rebuilding of
the Mahatupa (Ruwanweliseya) was carried out by Tamil prisoners-of-war and
when the work was completed the king himself visited Anuradhapura and was
present at the ceremony of placing the golden finial on the stupa's summit.
The king promulgated a law giving protection to all wildlife and fish in the
forests and tanks on the four poya days of every month. He gave instructions
to his district administrators how taxes were to be collected without loss
to the revenue and without oppressing the taxpayers. The Nikaya-sangraha
says that the king created fifteen chief officers of state and that he also
established the eighteen departments of record, the eight departments of
transport, the four departments of the treasury, the eight departments of
the elephant industry and the eighteen thousands villages not included in
the services to be rendered in the above departments.
The administrative organisation of Parakramabahu I shows the influence of
the Arthasastra, according to which the army (danda) and the treasury (kosa)
are the two instruments by means of which a king could not only maintain
control over his own territory but also keep his opponents in check and the
well-being of the treasury and the army depend on the revenue brought by the
pursuit of agriculture and trade (varta). The chief of the antharanga-dhura
had charge of the pearl fishery, gemming and other valuable sources of
trade, as well as of the king's commercial undertakings: his designation
antharanga implies that he had ready access to the king.
The Chulavamsa states that Parakramabahu during his reign, constructed or
restored 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major tanks and 2376 minor tanks, a
prodigious achievement unmatched by any other king. Pride of place in the
list of irrigation works of the reign is given to the second and much larger
Parakramasamudra, that king of reservoirs at Polonnaruwa. The bund of
Parakrama samudra, as now restored, is 8 ½ miles long and 40 feet high, the
area of the tank is 5940 acres and it irrigates 18,200 acres.
Conquest of Ruhuna
The first of the major military operations undertaken by the king was the
renewal of the war with Ruhuna, now ruled by Queen Sugala, the mother of the
late ruler, prince Manabharana. She was in possession of the Tooth and Alms
Bowl Relics, and there seems to be little doubt, notwithstanding other
explanations in the Chronicle, that this was another war of aggression whose
object was to secure these relics for Parakramabahu because his right to the
sovereignty remained imperfect and challengeable without them.
The people of Ruhuna, it is alleged, built strongholds in various places,
blocked the roads, garrisoned the defences of the principality, and started
to revolt. The king dispatched the senapati Rakkha with a division of troops
to enter Ruhuna and quell the rebellion. When these troops had departed, the
Sinhala and the Malay mercenaries in Kottiyar Pattu, together with the
Velaikkara regiment, took advantage of the depletion of the king's forces,
to mutiny, expecting that they would soon become masters of Rajarata. But
their plans were completely foiled: the mutiny was quickly suppressed, the
ringleaders were put to death, and the villages allotted for the maintenance
of the rebel soldiers were taken away and assigned to other services.
Meanwhile the general Rakkha had marched as far as Mahiyangana and overcame
strong resistance. Continuing his advance down a line corresponding to the
present Mahiyangana-Uraniya-Bibile road, he made slow progress in a
difficult terrain and was finally brought to a halt by natural obstacles as
well as determined opposition. The enemy had built a succession of seven
strongholds in a forested valley, two or four miles long, hemmed in on both
sides by high hills, a description which fits the vicinity of modern Hepola
and Rakkha spent some months in ineffective efforts to break through these
defences. Impatient of Rakkha's tardy progress, the king sent forward
powerful reinforcements, and the combined forces soon penetrated the defile
and pressed forward to the neighbourhood of Bibile. Here, a division was
diverted to the north to subdue the enemy troops in the flanking hilly
region of the Loggal Oya valley: this force brought that area under
subjection and rejoined the main body. The danger of a flank attack from the
overlooking hills having been removed, the general advance was resumed and
after further fighting at Medagama and Katupelalla the troops reached
Udundora (modern Galabedda), the residence of Queen Sugala. The queen,
taking the Tooth and Bowl Relics with her, took refuge at Ethimole.
Meanwhile a fresh area of
operations had been opened in the Dighavapi district, the present Gal Oya
valley, and a pincer movement now developed from east and west on Ethimole,
the queen's new residence. Parakramabahu's troops entered the Dighavapi
district through Eravur, and advanced through Divulana and Uhana to
Dighavapi itself. The king now received news that Queen Sugala contemplated
crossing the seas, taking the Relics with her, and it became imperative to
act quickly and effectively to prevent the Relics, objects indispensable to
sovereignty, from being removed to a foreign land. He therefore ordered the
troops in Dighavapi to close the pincers by marching westward to make
contact with the forces already in the Moneragala area who were endeavouring
to fight their way to Ethimole from the west. A major action was fought at
Galabedda, where the queen's troops made a determined attack upon the
combined forces of the king. After further encounters at Marawa, Badaguna
and other places, the encirclement of Ethimole was completed and the Relics
were captured: but Queen Sugala made good her escape.(University of Ceylon -
A Concise History of Ceylon by C. W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitana)
At this time a former general of the Ruhuna army named Sukarabhatudeva, who
had been made a prisoner-of-war by Parakramabahu in the previous campaign,
escaped from captivity and made his way to Hapatgamuwa, north-west of
Badulla. He was an influential and able officer and was a great asset to the
Ruhuna army in its present struggle. Attempts to recapture him failed, and
he soon appeared in the field as Sugala's chief commander. The overall
commander of the king's army fighting in Ruhuna was the senapathi Rakkha and
under him were three adhikarins in addition to other titled leaders holding
superior commands. The Ruhuna army under Sukarabhatudeva now began to
exhibit an offensive spirit and launched attacks on the several units of the
king's forces. At Bhattasupa, to the west of Moneragala, the king's army was
heavily attacked and driven westward past Okkampitiya. At this stage in the
campaign the senapathi Rakkha fell ill and died. Formerly a commander under
Gajabahu, he had joined Parakramabahu at the very beginning of the latter's
campaign and served his new master thereafter with conspicuous ability and
distinction, receiving advancement to the highest office in the state. At
the site of his cremation Parakramabahu afterwards built a large alms-hall
to commemorate the memory of his distinguished general.
The men of Ruhuna now assembled in large and threatening strength in the
Buttala district, and the opposing forces inter-locked in combat, moved
towards the Tissamaharama area. Parakramabahu sent his generals the
following message, 'That ye fight as chance wills it, while dragging the
Relics about from village to village pleaseth me not, send ye both Relics to
me at once'. The generals decided to send the Relics to the commander in
Viyaluwa Korale, for conveyance by him to Polonnaruwa. The sacred objects
were escorted by a strong force, and the journey to Viyaluwa was marked by
resistance during most of the way. Enemy troops attacked the escort from the
flanks and the rear and heavy fighting took place at six or seven places
before the Relics finally reached Kuruwepotha in Madulsima where they were
received by the Viyaluwa commander. The further journey of the Relics to
Polonnaruwa was without incident. On learning that the Relics were on their
way to him, the king left the city and went forward about eight miles to the
river: there he took personal charge of them and brought them to the city in
procession along a decorated route thronged with people. A great festival or
rejoicing and adoration of the Relics was celebrated in the city for several
days, the Relics being exhibited to the people in a specially constructed
mandapa, and they were then deposited in the Temple of the Tooth.
Parakramabahu's campaigns against Sugala
The king's commanders in Ruhuna met in conference after the safe dispatch of
the relics and discussed the military situation. They summed up the enemy's
tactics in the following words - "Our foes know their own country. When we
come near them they disperse or every side, and penetrate again into the
territory that we have brought into our power in order to re-conquer it." As
a counter-measure, they decided as for the future they would, in every area
which they subdued, post a strong garrison to hold and consolidate their
gains and so prevent the enemy from re-entering or re-occupying it. Serious
rebellion had broken out again in the Dighavapi district (the present Gal
Oya valley) and it was agreed that in the first instance, a concealed attack
should be launched upon it to bring this region under complete submission
before the scope of the military operations was further extended.
Accordingly, the combined forces marched east and fought their way past
Sakamam to Balapasana, a place between Sakamam and Malwatta, where they
built a formidable fortification and garrisoned it with a strong detachment.
The main body then continued their march in order to subdue Dighavapi
district from end to end. Various columns of this body fought successful
engagements at a number of enemy-held points of resistance including
Malwatta, Vadinagala and Sengamuwa, the direction of their attack being from
east to west, the reverse direction to that in which they had entered the
district. Dighavapi was subdued and all the columns from the different
sections converged on Hintalavanagama, forty or fifty miles west of
Dighavapi district, where the troops of queen Sugala had taken up their
position in a powerful stronghold. Hintalavanagama was stormed, but the
defeated defenders, resorting to their usual tactics, created a diversion in
the rear of the king's forces by attempting to retake the Dighavapi
district. The garrison left behind at Balapasana, reinforced by the column
from the main body, which made a forced march to its aid, foiled this
attempt. The main body again broke up into columns to traverse and subdue
the Buttala district and after fighting actions at Dambagalle, Horombava and
other places, rejoined and halted in the Wellawaya area.
The king had, while these operations in east Ruhuna (Atadahas-rata) were in
progress decided upon a new front in west Ruhuna (Dolosdahas-rata) with
Mahanagahula (Rambha Vihara), a former seat of the rulers of Ruhuna, as its
objective. One commander made his advance down the western and southern
coasts while his collaborator, the Damiladhikarin Rakkha, made his way over
the hills of Ratnapura district and Morawak Korale into the Matara district.
The coastal advance began in Pasdun Korale and after the advanced guard had
captured Gintota, the main body followed and camped at the mouth of the Gin
Ganga. The enemy retired to Weligama. This place was then an important port
and there were many rich merchants there. The commander of the seacoast
column offered terms to the people of Weligama: freedom from punishment and
protection to all if they submitted without resistance. The terms were
accepted and the merchants and the people surrendered. The king's troops
then resumed their easterly advance and various detachments fought
successful actions at Pelena, Kamburugamuwa, Matara and Devundara and
converged on Akuressa to make there a crossing of the Nilwala Ganga in
force. The enemy offered strong resistance and a severe struggle ensued, but
the king's soldiers were victorious and took up a position on the opposite
bank. The defeated enemy troops retired to Ranmalakanda, near Kirama and
fortified themselves in the hills on the flank of the line of advance to
Rambha-Vihara. This menace to further forward progress had to be removed
before the king's troops could continue their march to their objective, and
a strong detachment was dispatched to dislodge the enemy from their
positions on the Ranmalakanda. It was a difficult operation owing to the
rugged nature of the terrain, but spies guided the troops along unguarded
paths through the forest, and the enemy's entrenchments were stormed and
captured in a surprise attack. The way forward being now clear, the king's
commander advanced to a point between Ranmalakanda and Mamadola, was joined
by the detachment which captured Ranmalakanda and halted there.
Simultaneously with the coastal advance, the Damiladhikarin Rakkha entered
Denawaka with a strong force and set out to subdue Navadun Korale. Anxious
to secure a quick and decisive victory, he pushed through, precipitately to
Atakalanpanna, only to find the enemy rising up behind him and re-occupying
the districts he had passed through. He was compelled to return to Denawaka
and start operations all over again, but this time he was prudent,
consolidated his success in each district and appointed officials to
continue ordered administration. The enemy forces retiring before him,
established themselves in an entrenched position at Dandava near Kahawatte.
This position as well as another at Tambagamuwa, near Madampe, were
captured, the latter in a night attack and the Damiladhikarin returned to
Dandava and sent divisions of troops in different directions to clear the
ground for his next forward move. These advanced troops engaged the enemy
successfully at Bogahawela, Binnegama and Bathkanda, forcing the enemy to
retire over the hills, past Urubokka and Beralapanathara to the Giruwapattu
boundary. The Damiladhikarin following with the main body, found the enemy
in position and ready to fight at Obada, north-west of Weeraketiya. He
marched to Mahasengama and launched his attack on Obada from there. The
battle was decisive: the Damiladhikarin's troops overwhelmed their
opponents, slew the enemy commander and completely routed the enemy forces.
Untroubled by further resistance, the Damiladhikarin occupied Mahanagahula (Rambha-vihara),
the objective set him by the king.
The troops who had advanced along the coast joined the Damiladhikarin at
Rambha-vihara and the combined forces were given a period of rest and
recuperation. The rebels now assembled on the eastern side of the lower
course of the Walawe Ganga and the Damiladhikarin engaged them at
Koggala-Udawewa and put them to flight. More sorties were made against enemy
forces at Hambegamuwa and Tissamaharama and at the latter place the enemy
Commander-in-Chief, Sukarabhatudeva was killed in battle. The enemy
approached Tissamaharama again, but were driven back to Koravakgala, near
Situlpawwa and there defeated.
For the third time they made a desperate bid to capture Tissamaharama, but
they were repulsed yet again. It was clear to the king's generals in this
region that the rebels, though defeated in open combat, were still
dangerously active underground, every now and again breaking out in open
hostility when they thought they were secure from attack and then subsiding
into uneasy quiescence when the king's troops entered their territory. The
Damiladhikarin resorted therefore to a stratagem: he pretended to carry out
a forced retirement and went right back to Dandava in the Ratnapura
foothills, leaving the territory which he had conquered ungarrisoned, thus
inducing all the rebels, who were hitherto acting in secret, to come out
into the open in the belief that they were free men once again. When they
had in this way, showed their hand, the Damiladhikarin marched back with his
army, fell upon them at Bogahawela, Urabokka, Beralapanatara and Meegoda and
annihilated all the rebel elements in Morawak Korale. Then he descended to
the lowlands, sent detachments to penetrate every part of the Giruwa and
Magam Pattus and destroyed all rebellious activity root and branch.
The Damiladhikarin now proceeded to the Buttala district and conferred with
the three adhikarins there who had completed the subjugation of the Buttala
district. Queen Sugala was a refugee in the wilderness of Atadahas-rata, but
the remnant of the rebel forces in Dolosdhas-rata was still at large. The
generals decided to overcome the latter first and then take up the pursuit
of the queen. The Damiladhikarin marched his troops to the Walawe Ganga and
found that the enemy was on the move to the foot-hills. He continued in
pursuit and found them entrenched on Mahapabbata, a peak in the Ranmalakanda
range: he besieged them and then broke into their fortification and took
prisoner all those who escaped death. This victory completed the subjugation
of Dolosdahas-rata and the Damiladhikarin returned with his troops to
Rambha-vihara and punished the rebel prisoners with savagery, impaling or
hanging a large number of them. He then sent word to the king that he had
accomplished his mission.
The three adhikarins in Buttala took up the task of capturing Queen Sugala.
They marched to Aralugasmeda (a hamlet of Parana Alupotha), Kinivelgoda and
Beddegama where they caught up with her and her troops. In the engagement
which followed the queen's soldiers were put to flight and she was taken
prisoner. Those who escaped from the battle were hotly pursued to Galabedda
and Maragala and were killed or taken captive. Vengeance was now taken on
the rebel leaders and their active supporters: several hundreds were put to
death by public execution in villages and towns. On the king's orders
garrisons were posted in the various districts, stable government was
established, and the whole principality of Ruhuna was placed in charge of
the adhikarin Bhutha who was appointed by the king to govern it. The other
commanders and the troops returned to Polonnaruwa taking Queen Sugala with
them and presented themselves to the king.
The Chronicle ends its narrative of the 'Conquest of Rohana' at this point.
The next chapter begins with the statement that in the eighth year (1161 AC)
of the king's reign, all the inhabitants of Ruhuna rose in rebellion again,
"stirred up by a foolhardy villain". The previous campaign was repeated:
large forces commanded by generals, entered Ruhuna, fought the rebels at
many of the places where battles had been fought previously and in a shorter
time than before, suppressed the revolt. No details are given of this second
campaign. We may infer that, in the first decade of his reign,
Parakramabahu's sovereignty over Ruhuna was powerfully resisted by the
majority of its inhabitants.
Parakramabahu invades Burma
Parakramabahu I carried out an invasion of Burma (now Myanmar) in 1164 or
1165 AC. There had existed a strong bond of friendship for many years
between the two countries Lanka and Burma. Both were ruled by Buddhist kings
and it had been the established practice for them to exchange costly gifts
and to maintain regular and cordial intercourse. Parakramabahu I continued
this friendship with Alaungsithu, the king of Burma. Alaungsithu according
to the Burmese chronicles, was a monarch of haughty temperament, now
enfeebled by extreme old age and troubled in his last years by dissension
caused by the conduct of his sons.
Lanka elephant prized for its
intelligence
It had been customary for the
Burmese king to present an elephant to every vessel from Lanka which carried
gifts to him. (Lanka also exported elephants and the Lanka elephant was much
prized from very early times for its intelligence and docility, but the
Lanka race has the lowest proportion of tuskers among Asiatic elephants and
the only object in importing elephants into Lanka from Burma would appear to
have been to secure tusked animals). (University of Ceylon - A Concise
History of Ceylon by C. W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitana)
The unrestricted export of elephants from Burma to foreign countries had
always been allowed, and there were many merchants in Burma engaged in the
trade. Alaungsithu made the trade in elephants a royal monopoly, and doubled
and trebled the price to be paid for them: he also discontinued the practice
of presenting elephants to Lanka ships. Although Burmese envoys to the
Sinhala court were accorded great distinction, Alaungsithu found excuses for
treating in a barbarous manner Sinhala envoys who came to his kingdom. He
deprived one group of them of their money, the elephants they had purchased,
and their ships, imprisoned them in a fortress in the hills, fastened
fetters on their feet and put them to draw water in the prisons.
On board a leaking vessel
Later, he had these envoys brought before him, told them that henceforth
ships from Lanka would not be permitted to come to his kingdom, and
compelled them to sign a document indemnifying from blame if he put to death
any Sinhalese who came to Burma in defiance of his prohibition: then he sent
the envoys back to Lanka on board a leaking vessel. These insults and frauds
were repeated and his last provocative act was to seize a Sinhala princess
who was passing through Burma on her way to Cambodia.
Incensed by this succession of affronts, Parakramabahu I decided that there
was no alternative but to go to war and he accordingly set in motion
preparations for an invasion of Burma. The building of the invasion fleet in
the ports of Lanka took five months.
Special arrows for use against elephants
In addition to the usual
accoutrements of war, the troops were equipped with special arrows with
sharp points for the use against elephants.
The ships were abundantly provisioned and the health of the troops amply
provided for: physicians and nurses who accompanied the fleet were provided
with medicines of every kind preserved in cow-horns, and special surgical
instruments for extracting arrow-heads. When all was ready the expedition
set sail from the port of Palvakki on the north-east coast: it was commanded
by the Damiladhikarin Adichcha his deputy being the Nagaragiri Kitti. It
encountered adverse winds and some ships sank while others drifted to
foreign shores.
One ship made land at Kakadipa ("Crow's Island", probably one of the Andaman
Islands) and the troops on board landed and captured several of the
inhabitants and brought them back to Lanka as prisoners. Five ships under
the command of Nagaragiri Kitti entered the port of Bassein and the Sinhala
soldiers landed and laid waste the surrounding country, defeating in a
series of engagements the Burmese troops who opposed them. The
Damiladhikarin Adichcha landed at Ma-pappalama and advanced and captured the
town of Ukkama. The Chulavansa claims that Alaungsithu was killed at Ukkama
but this claim is entirely at variance with the Burmese accounts of the
death of their king.
Nagaragiri Kitti captures Kusumiya
The Sinhala invasion was no more than a punitive raid and the Burmese
chronicles say nothing about it. It achieved its intended result. After the
return of the Sinhala troops to Lanka, Alaungsithu through the mediation of
the Sangha entered into a pact whereby he undertook to restore all the
privileges and concessions which Sinhala envoys and merchants had previously
enjoyed, and so made peace with Parakramabahu I.
Devanagala inscription
The Devanagala inscription, dated in the twelfth year of Parakramabahu I
records a grant of lands to Kit Nuvaragal (Nagaragiri Kitti of the
Chronicle) as reward for his services in the expedition to Burma. The
inscription confirms the Chronicle that the Burmese town of Kusumiya (Bassein)
was captured and that thereafter the Burmese king Bhuvanaditta (A title of
Alaungsithu), sent envoys to Parakramabahu to negotiate a treaty.
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